How to Read a Scientific Research Paper–

a four-step guide for students and for faculty

Ann McNeal, School of Natural Science, Hampshire College, Amherst MA 01002

Reading research papers (“primary articles”) is partly a matter of experience and skill, and partly learning the specific vocabulary of a field. First of all, DON’T PANIC! If you approach it step by step, even an impossible-looking paper can be understood.

1. Skimming. Skim the paper quickly, noting basics like headings, figures and the like. This takes just a few minutes. You’re not trying to understand it yet, but just to get an overview.

2. Vocabulary. Go through the paper word by word and line by line, underlining or highlighting every word and phrase you don’t understand. Don’t worry if there are a lot of underlinings; you’re still not trying to make sense of the article.

Now you have several things you might do with these vocabulary and concept questions, depending upon the kind of question each is. You can

1. Look up simple words and phrases. Often the question is simply vocabulary–what’s a lateral malleolus, or a christa, or the semilunar valve. A medical or biological dictionary is a good place to look for definitions. A textbook of physiology or anatomy may be a good source, because it give more complete explanations. Your ordinary shelf dictionary is not a good source, because the definitions may not be precise enough or may not reflect the way in which scientists use a word (for example “efficiency” has a common definition, but the physical definition is much more restricted.)
2. Get an understanding from the context in which it is used. Often words that are used to describe the procedures used in an experiment can be understood from the context, and may be very specific to the paper you are reading. Examples are the “lithium-free control group” in a rat experiment or the “carotene extraction procedure” in a biochemical experiment. Of course, you should be careful when deciding that you understand a word from its context, because it might not mean what you think.
3. Flag this phrase as belonging to one of the major concepts of the paper–it’s bigger than a vocabulary question. For example, a paper about diet and cancer might refer to “risk reduction,” which you would need to understand in context and in some depth.

3. Comprehension, section by section. Try to deal with all the words and phrases, although a few technical terms in the Methods section might remain. Now go back and read the whole paper, section by section, for comprehension.

In the Introduction, note how the context is set. What larger question is this a part of? The author should summarize and comment on previous research, and you should distinguish between previous research and the actual current study. What is the hypothesis of the paper and the ways this will be tested?

In the Methods, try to get a clear picture of what was done at each step. What was actually measured? It is a good idea to make an outline and/or sketch of the procedures and instruments. Keep notes of your questions; some of them may be simply technical, but others may point to more fundamental considerations that you will use for reflection and criticism below.

In Results look carefully at the figures and tables, as they are the heart of most papers. A scientist will often read the figures and tables before deciding whether it is worthwhile to read the rest of the article! What does it mean to “understand” a figure? You understand a figure when you can redraw it and explain it in plain English words.

The Discussion contains the conclusions that the author would like to draw from the data. In some papers, this section has a lot of interpretation and is very important. In any case, this is usually where the author reflects on the work and its meaning in relation to other findings and to the field in general.

4. Reflection and criticism. After you understand the article and can summarize it, then you can return to broader questions and draw your own conclusions. It is very useful to keep track of your questions as you go along, returning to see whether they have been answered. Often, the simple questions may contain the seeds of very deep thoughts about the work–for example, “Why did the authors use a questionnaire at the end of the month to find out about premenstrual tension? Wouldn’t subjects forget or have trouble recalling?”

Here are some questions that may be useful in analyzing various kinds of research papers:

Introduction:

• What is the overall purpose of the research?

• How does the research fit into the context of its field? Is it, for example, attempting to settle a controversy? show the validity of a new technique? open up a new field of inquiry?

• Do you agree with the author’s rationale for studying the question in this way?

• Methods:

• Were the measurements appropriate for the questions the researcher was approaching?

• Often, researchers need to use “indicators” because they cannot measure something directly–for example, using babies’ birthweight to indicate nutritional status. Were the measures in this research clearly related to the variables in which the researchers (or you) were interested?

• If human subjects were studied, do they fairly represent the populations under study?

• Results

• What is the one major finding?

• Were enough of the data presented so that you feel you can judge for yourself how the experiment turned out?

• Did you see patterns or trends in the data that the author did not mention? Were there problems that were not addressed?

• Discussion

• Do you agree with the conclusions drawn from the data?

• Are these conclusions over-generalized or appropriately careful?

• Are there other factors that could have influenced, or accounted for, the results?

• What further experiments would you think of, to continue the research or to answer remaining questions?

Some Tips for Students at the Senior Undergraduate and Masters Levels

Department of Asian Studies, September 2006

The ultimate objective of a research paper is to 1) develop an argument about a clearly defined topic; and 2) persuade the reader with evidence that your argument is the correct one.

Step #1: Identify the topic: Since you and your topic will be spending a great deal of time together, be sure to choose one that interests you.  At this stage of the research process, your topic will probably be very general, even vague (“Women in Tokugawa Japan”; “China’s one-child policy”; “Indian migration to North America”, etc).

Step #2: Do some preliminary reading: Read a few books or articles that will provide you with: 1) general background information about your topic; and 2) the ideas and arguments of other scholars as they pertain to your topic.

Step #3: Formulate a research question or hypothesis: Once you have a general understanding of your topic, narrow it down into a manageable research question or hypothesis.  This will help you define the parameters of your research, as well as your argument.  Some possible research questions relating to China’s one-child policy are:

● What effects have the one-child policy had on China’s medical system?

● How have ordinary Chinese citizens reacted to the one-child policy?

● How has the one-child policy affected family life in China?

Hypotheses relating to the one-child policy include:

● China’s one-child policy has led to an increase in the national abortion rate.

● The desire for long-term economic growth is what ultimately prompted Chinese authorities to introduce the one-child policy.

Hypotheses look very much like “mini-arguments”; the objective of the research paper is to present evidence that will prove those hypotheses.

Step #4: Compile your bibliography and read, read, read!: Once you have a workable hypothesis or research question, you will have a better sense of where to look for evidence to support it.  Look for books, book chapters, academic articles, documents, etc. that relate—directly and indirectly—to your question or hypothesis. As you collect your sources and read through them, keep the following points in mind:

● Collecting sources takes time.  Consult a variety of search engines and databases (all of them have different strengths and weaknesses), and look through the notes and bibliographies of books and articles that you have already collected.  Think of yourself as a detective trying to solve a mystery; hunt for a “lead” and follow it through, and expect some dead ends from time to time. If you encounter too many dead ends, consult a university librarian for help. And if that fails, you may have to rework your hypothesis or question.

● Take advantage of PCL’s Interlibrary Services to obtain sources from other universities.

● Take careful notes as you read.  Jot down the page numbers beside particular pieces of information (this will come in handy as you compile your footnotes or endnotes), and be sure to paraphrase the information in your own words (this will help you avoid unconscious plagiarism as you draft your paper).

● Pay attention to the different arguments and theories presented by the authors of secondary sources.  In some cases, you will agree with a particular argument or theory and incorporate it into your own.  In other cases, you will disagree with those arguments; do not, however, ignore them.  The more you are able to address problematic arguments in your own written work and explain why they are incorrect or inappropriate, the more valid and convincing your own argument becomes.

● [Students required to write research proposals should do so early on in this process.  See “Writing Research Proposals for the Honors Thesis”]

Step #5: Outline your paper: When your reading no longer yields new information, you are probably ready to start organizing the paper.  But before you sit down to write, think through the argument and methodology of the paper.  In other words, what are you going to say in the paper, and how are you going to say it?

Your outline should be viewed as the analytical skeleton of your research paper.  Thus, it should include information about each of the three main sections of the essay:

● Introduction: your research question or hypothesis, the methodology, and the argument.

● Body: evidence used to support your argument.

● Conclusion: summary of argument, statement about the significance of your findings, directions for future research, etc.

Students are strongly recommended to consult with their course instructors or thesis advisors once they have a workable outline.

Step #6: Draft the paper: Before you begin writing, go through your notes and keep only those that have a bearing on your research question; discard the rest.  Remember, the aim of a research paper is to develop an argument about a carefully defined topic: as soon as you digress from that topic, your argument becomes weak and irrelevant.

Expect to complete several drafts of your paper.   (It’s easier to build perfection in several steps than in only one try!) In the first draft, focus on laying out the argument. Once the argument is in place, work on grammar and style.

Step #7: Develop citations and bibliography: Information that is not common knowledge or that pertains to someone else’s opinion must be acknowledged in a citation.  If you’re ever in doubt about whether or not to cite something, err on the side of caution and cite it.

Step #8: Spit and polish: Try to set your paper/thesis aside for a few days before submitting it.  When you finally pick it up again, you’ll be able to assess it with a fresh, more objective eye.  Now’s the time to proofread it for factual and interpretive errors.

The Research and Writing Process:

Some Miscellaneous Terms and Tips

Levels of analysis:

1. Description: statements about the qualitative (and perhaps quantitative) parameters of some thing, event, person, phenomenon, text, etc.

● “The Chinese government is controlled by a small group of leaders.”

2. An Argument can be defined as your point of view about some thing, event, person, phenomenon, text, etc., plus supporting evidence.  An argument can consist of an interpretation of the relationship between events, or of the broader significance of a single event, text, etc.

● “The Chinese government is pursuing economic liberalization in order to preserve its political power.”

● “The Chinese government is pursuing economic liberalization in order to improve China’s standing in the world.”

Note that these “arguments” are not facts; they simply propose a relationship between two phenomena.  In order for these arguments to be considered “valid” or “persuasive”, they must be accompanied by evidence.

3. A Theory can be loosely defined as an argument (or logical explanation) for some phenomenon that can be applied to a variety of circumstances. Needless to say, theories also need to be proven with evidence.

● “Strong governments engage in economic liberalization in order to preserve their power.”

This particular “theory” is stated in the form of a hypothesis:  a simple explanation of a particular phenomenon that needs confirming through observation, testing, experimentation, etc. Some disciplines define a hypothesis as a “tentative” theory, or as an idea whose merit has yet to be evaluated. (Note that this particular hypothesis, like theories in general, can be applied to several cases in history, including China and the former Soviet Union.)

Students at the senior undergraduate level should strive to develop sophisticated arguments in their writings. They should also know how to recognize different theories in the writings of others.  Some students, including honors students and those interested in developing disciplinary expertise, may be encouraged to apply or test specific theories in their writings.  Graduate students should strive to apply or, depending on the discipline, test theories, and even to posit new hypotheses.
Methodology: the methods, procedures, and techniques used to gather and evaluate information and, consequently, prove your argument or theory.  All disciplines have different methodologies.  Examples include:

● experimentation (for the hard sciences)

● survey research/ regression analysis (social sciences)

● in-depth textual analysis (humanities)

● case studies (in-depth description of one or more examples of a particular

phenomenon)

Research question: a question that enables the writer to develop a single, substantiated argument. As such, the research question should be limited in terms of the number of phenomena to be examined and the time frame.

(Some students, particularly at the masters level, will base their arguments on hypotheses instead of research questions.)